2024年2月19日发(作者：叶若华)
1. Word --- A word is a minimal free form of
a language that has a given sound and meaning
and syntactic funtion.
2. Morpheme --- A morpheme is the minimal significant element in
the composition of words.
3. Free morphemes or Content morphemes (Free root) --- They are
morphemes that may constitute words by themselves : cat, walk.
4. Bound Morphemes or Grammatical morphemes --- They are morphemes
that must appear with at least one other morpheme, either bound or free :
Catts, walk+ing.
5. Bound root --- A bound root is that part of the word that
carries the fundamental meaning just like a free root. Unlike a free
root, it is a bound form and has to combine with other morphemes to make
words. Take -dict- for example: it conveys the meaning of "say or speak"
as a Latin root, but not as a word. With the prefix pre-(=before) we
obtain the verb predict meaning "tell beforehand".
6. Affixes --- Affixes are forms that are attached to words or word
elements to modify meaning or funtion.
7. Inflectional morphemes or Inflectional affixes--- Affixes
attaches to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships are
inflectional ,thus known as inflectional morphemes.
There is the regular plural suffix -s(-es) which is added to nouns
such as machines, desks.
8. Derivational morphemes or Derivational affixes--- Derivational
affixes are affixes added to other morphemes to create new words.
9. Prefixes --- Prefixes are affixes that come before the word,
such as, pre+war.
10. Suffixes --- suffixes are affixes that come after the word, for
instance, blood+y. Derivational morphemes/ derivational affixes --- A
process of forming new words by the addition of a word element. Such as
prefix, suffix, combing form to an already existing word.
Prefixation ---- is the formation of new words by adding prefix or
combing form to the base. (It modify the lexical meaning of the base)
Suffixation--- is the formation of a new word by adding a suffix or
combing form to the base and usually changing the word-class of the base.
Such as boy. Boyish (noun- adjective)
11. Root --- A root is the basic form of a word which cannot be
further analysed without total loss of identity.
下面我画了个图,把上面的定义形象的表达出来:
12. Opaque Words--Words that are formed by one content morpheme
only and cannot be analysed into parts are called opaque words, such as
axe, glove.
13. Transparent Words--Words that consist of more than one
morphemes and can be segmented into parts are called transparent words:
workable(work+able), door-man(door+man).
14. Morphs--Morphemes are abstract units, which are realized in
speech by discrete units known
as morphs. They are actual spoken, minimal carriers of meaning.
15. Allomorps--Some morphemes are realized by more than one morph
according to their position in a word. Such alternative morphs are known
as allomorphs. For instance, the morpheme of plurality {-s} has a number
of allomorphs in different sound context, e.g. in cats /s/, in bags /z/,
in match /iz/.
16. Derivation or Affixation--Affixation is generally defined as
the formation of words by adding word-forming or derivational affixes to
stems. This process is also known as derivation.
17. Prefixatio n--Prefixation is the formation of new words by
adding prefixes to stems.
18. Suffixation--Suffixation is the formation of new words by
adding suffixes to stems.
19. Compounding(Compositon)--Compounding is a process of word-formation by which two independent words are put together to make one
word. E.g. hen-packed; short-sighted.
20. Conversion--Conversion is the formation of new words by
converting words of one class to another class. This process of creating
new words without adding any affixes is also called zero-derivation. E.g.
dry (a.)-->to dry.
21. Back-formation-- is a process of word-formation by which a word
is created by the deletion of
a supposed affix. E.g. editor entered the language before edit.
22. Abbreviation ( shortening )-- is a process of word-formation by
which the syllables of words are abbreviated or shortened.
23. Abbreviation includes four types : I. Clipped words II.
Initialisms III. Acronyms IV. Blends.
I. Clipped words--are those created by clipping part of a word,
leaving only a piece of the old word. E.g. telephone-->phone,
professional-->pro.
II. Initialisms--are words formed from the initial letters of words
and pronounced as letters. E.g. IMF/ai em ef/=International Monetary
Fund.
III. Acronyms--are words formed from the initial letters of word
and pronounced as words. E.g. NATO/'neito/=North Atlantic Treaty
Organization.
IV. Blends--are words that are combined by parts of other words.
E.g. smoke+fog=smog.
24. Polysemy--The same word may have two or more different meanings.
This is known as "polysemy". The word "flight", for example, may mean
"passing through the air", "power of flying", "air of journey", etc.
Two approaches to polysemy: Diachronic and Synchronic
Diachronically, we study the growth or change in the semantic
structure of a word , or how the semantic structure of a word has
developed from primary meaning to the present polysemic state .
Synchronically, we are interested in the comparative value of
individual meanings and the interrelation between the central meaning
and the secondary meanings.
Two processes leading to polysemy: Radiation and concatenation
Radiation : Semantically, radiation is the process in which the
primary or central meaning stands at the center while secondary meanings
radiate from it in every direction like rays. Concatenation : is a
semantic process in which the meaning of a word moves gradually away
from its first sense by successive shifts, like the links of a chain,
untill there is no connection between the sense that is finally
developed and the primary meaning.
25. Homonyms--a re generally defined as words different in meaning
but either identical both in sound and spelling or identical『a.同一的,完全相同的』only in sound or spelling.
26. Perfect Homonyms--are words identical both in sound and
spelling,but different in meaning。
E.g. bear n. a large heavy animal;
bear v. to put up with
27. Homographs--are words identical only in spelling but different
in sound and meaning. E.g. sow /s3u/ v. to scatter seeds
sow /sau/ n. female adult pig
28. Homophones--are words identical only insound but different in
spelling and meaning. E.g. dear /di3/ n. a loved person
deer /di3/ n. a kind of animal
29. Synonyms--can be defined as words different in sound and
spelling but most nearly alike or exactly the same in meaning. E.g.
maid / girl They are the same meaning of "a young female".
30. Absolute(Complete, Perfect)Synonyms--are words which are
identical in meaning in all its aspects, i.e. both in grammatical
meaning and lexical meaning, including conceptual and associative
meanings. For instance, composition / compounding They have the perfect
same meaning in Lexicology.
31. Relative (near,partial) synonyms--are similar or nearly the
same in denotation ,but embrace different shades of meaning or different
degrees of a given quality.
Take stagger/reel/totter for example. Stagger implies unsteady
movement characterized by a loss of balance and failure to maintain a
fixed course. E.g. stagger under a heavy load; Reel suggests a swaying
or lurching so as to appear on the verge of falling. E.g. The drunken
man reeled down the hall; Totter indicates the uncertain, faltering
steps of a feeble old person or of an infant learning to walk.
32. Sources of Synonyms
I. Borrowing : Native (ask)--French (question)--Latin (interrogate)
II. Dialects and regional English: railway (BrE)--railroad (AmE)
III. Figurative『a. 比喻的,象征的』and euphemistic 『a.委婉的』use
of words: occupation--walk of life (fig.)
lie--distort the fact (euph.)
IV. Coincidence with idiomatic expressions:
win--gain the upper hand
hesitate--be in two minds
33. Discrimination of Synonyms
I. Difference in denotation : differ in the range and intensity of
meaning.
E.g. extend--increase--expand (range)
want--wish--desire (intensity)
II. Difference in connotation『n.涵义,含蓄』: differ in the
stylistic and emotive colouring. E.g. ask (neutral); beg (colloquial);
request (formal)
III. Difference in application: in usage. E.g.
empty box ; vacant seat
34. Antonymy--is concerned with semantic opposition.
35. Antonyms--are words which are opposite in meaning.
36. Types of Antonyms
I. Contradictory terms: mutually opposed; true oppositeness of
meaning; no possibility between them; E.g. alive--dead; present--absent
II. Contrary terms: gradable
E.g. rich--(well-to-do)--poor;
hot--(warm,cool)--cold
III. Relative terms: relational oppositeness
E.g. parent--child; husband--wife; sell--buy
IV. Semantic incompatibles: contrastingness.
E.g. north,south,east,west;
spring,summer,a utumn,winter.
37. Hyponymy--deals with the relationship of semantic inclusion.
That is , the meaning of a more specific word is included in that of
another more general word. These specific words are known as hyponyms.
For instance, tulip and rose are hyponyms of flower. The general word
flower is the superordinate term and the specific ones tulip and rose
are the subordinate terms.
38. Extension of meaning (generalization)--is a term referring to
the widening of meaning. It is a process by which a word which
originally had a specialized meaning has now become generalized.
"Picture", for example, originally denoted mere "painting", but now has
come to include "drawings" and even "photographs".
39. Narrowing of meaning(specialization)--is a term referring to
the shrinking of meaning. It is a process by which a word of wide
meaning acquires a narrower or specialized sense.
E.g. When garage was first borrowed from French, it meant simply
"any safe place" but now "a
place for storing cars".
40. Elevation or amelioration『n.改善,改良』--refers to the process
by which words rise from humble beginnings to positions of importance.
E.g. Marshal and constable meant a "keeper of horses", but now have
risen to a "high-ranking army officer" and "policeman" respectively.
41. Degradation or pejoration of meaning--It is a process whereby
words of good origin fall into ill reputation or non-affective words
come to be used in derogatory sense.
E.g. A wench was a "country girl" and now means "prostitute".
42. Metaphor『n.隐喻』--is a figure of speech containing an implied
comparison, in which a word or phase ordinarily and primarily used of
one thing is applied to another.
E.g. the teeth of a comb; blood bank; He has a heart of stone; The
curtain of night has fallen.
43. Metonymy『n.借代』--is the device in which we name something by
one of its attributes, as in crown for king, the White House for the
President. The kettle is boiling. (kettle for water in the kettle)
44. Synecdoche『n.提喻法』--means using a part for a whole, an
individual for a class, a material for a thing or the reverse of any of
these.
For example, bread for food, the army for a soldier.
He is a poor creature. --creature for man
45. Analogy『n.类似,相似』--is a process whereby words are created
in imitation of other words. For example, telethon an talkathon are
created on the model of marathon.
46. Idiom--Strictly speaking, idioms are expressions that are not
readily understandable from their literal meanings of individual
elements. For example, fly off the handle (become excessively angry) and
put up with (tolerate). In a broad sense, idioms may include
colloquialisms, catchphrases, slang expressions ,proverbs,etc.
47. Characteristics of Idioms:
I. Long use
II. Unitary meaning; semantic unity.
III. Syntactic frozenness; structural stability.
48. Figurative idioms--are idioms that include metaphor. Strictly
speaking, they are true idioms.
E.g. a dog in the manger.
49. Sources of Figurative idioms:
I. Coloquialisms: big wheel (an influential or important person)
II. Literary expressions: to kill the fatted calf
III. Slang: in the soup(in serious trouble)
IV. Foreign idioms: sour grapes.
50. Motivation--accounts for the connection between the linguistic
symbol and its meaning.
51. Onomatopoeic Motivation--These words were created by imitating
the natural sounds or noises. For example, bang, ping-pang, crow by
cocks, etc.
52. Morphological Motivation--Compounds and derived words are
multi-morphemic words and the meaning of many are the sum total of the
morphemes combined. For instance, airmail means to "mail by air",
miniskirt is "a small skirt".
53. Semantic Motivation--refers to the mental associations
suggested by the conceptual meaning of a word.
E.g. When we say the mouth of a river, we associate the opening
part of the river with the mouth of a human being or an animal.
54. Etymological Motivation--The history of the word explains the
meaning of the word. [
1、types of morphemes: Free morphemes; bound morphemes;
inflectional morphemes.
2、types of bound morphemes:Prefix; Suffix.
3、types of idioms: Idioms Nominal in nature; Idioms Adjectival in
nature; Idioms Verbal in nature; Idioms Adverbal in nature; sentence
idioms.
4、types of word meaning: Grammatical meaning and lexical meaning;
conceptual meaning and associative meaning (connotative
meaningstylistic ~affective
~collocative ~)
5、idioms stylistic features: colloquialisms; slang; literary
expressions.
6、idioms rhetorical features:
phonetic manipulation (alliterationrhyme); lexical manipulation
(reiterationrepetitionjuxtaposition);figures of speech
(similemetaphormetonymysynecdovheeuphemismpersonification)
7、types of word formation: affixation; compounding; conversion;
blending; clipping; acronym; back-formation; word from proper names.
8、changes in wording: extension; narrowing; elevation; degradation;
transfer.
9、types of motivation: morphological motivated; semantic ~;
etymological ~; onomatopoeic ~
10、语系划分的标准Estern set : Balto-Slavic(Prussian, Lithuanian ,
Polish ,Czech, Bulgarian ,Slovenian and Russian.), Indo-Iranian(Persian,
Hindi), Armenian and Albanian;Western set : Celtic(Scottish, Irish,
Welsh, Breton), Italic(Portuguese, Spanish, French, Italian ,
Roumanian) , Hellenic(Greek),
Germanic(Norwegian ,Icelandic, Danish and Swedish, English, German).
五、41-45名词解释*2;
Lexicology is a branch of linguistics, inquiring into the origins
and meanings of words.
Morphology : the study of morpheme and their different forms.
Semantics:the study of word meaning.
Etymology: the study of the origin of words, and of their history
and changes in their meaning.
Stylistics : the study of the variation in language which is
dependent on the situation in which the language is used and also on the
effect the writer or speaker wishes to create on the reader or hearer
Lexicography : the compiling of dictionaries.
Synchronic study : the study of a word or words at one particular
point in time.
Diachronic study: a n approach to lexicology which studies how a
word (or words) changes over a period of time.
word: a word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given
sound and meaning and syntactic function.
vocabulary:Vocabulary refers to the total number of the words in a
language, but it can stand for all the words used in a particular
historical lary also refers to all the words of a given
dialect, given book, a given discipline and the words possessed by an
individual person.
Terminology术语consists of technical terms used in particular
disciplines and academic areas as in medicine:
Jargon行话refers to the specialized vocabularies by which members
of particular arts, sciences, trades and professions communicate among
themselves such as in business.
slang俚语belongs to the sub-standard language, a category that
seems to stand between the standard general words including informal
ones available to everyone and in-group words
Argot黑话generally refers to the jargon of criminals. Its use is
confined to the
sub-cultural groups, and outsiders can hardly understand it,
Archaism s古词语are words or forms that were once in common use
but are now restricted only to specialized or limited use.
Neologisms新词语are newly-created words or expressions, or words
that have taken on new meanings.
denizen s同化词are words borrowed early in the past and now are
well assimilated into the English language.
Alien非同化词are borrowed words which have retained their original
pronunciation and spelling.
Translation-loans. 借译词Translation-loans are words and
expressions formed from the existing material in the English language
but modelled on the patterns taken from another language.
Semantic-loan s借义词Words of this category are not borrowed with
reference to the form. But their meanings are borrowed.
Content word: the basic word stock is the foundation of the
vocabulary ,which accumulated over centuries and forms the common core
of the language. It is the most important part of vocabulary.
Creation : the formation of new words by using the existing
materials, namely roots, affix es and other elements. Semantic change
means an old form which takes on a new meaning to meet the new need.
Morpheme: the smallest meaningful unit in a language
Allomorph: any of the different forms of a morpheme
Free morpheme: a linguistic form which can be used on its own as a
word
Bound morpheme: a form (morpheme) which can not he used alone hut
must be used with another morpheme. Bound morphemes include hound roots
and affixes
Affixes: forms that are attached to words or word elements to
modify meaning or function
Prefixation(suffixation): is the formation of new words by adding
prefixes(suffixes) to stem
Inflectional affixes: affixes attached to the end of words to
indicate grammatical relationships
Derivational affixes: affixes added to other morphemes to create
new words
Root: a morpheme which is the basic part of a word that can not be
further analyzed without total loss of identity
Stem: a form to which affixes of any kind can be added
Bound root: a root that can not stand alone as a word
Monomorphemic words: words that have nothing more than a free
morpheme
Affixation: Derivation (also known as affixation) is the process of
formation of words by adding word-forming or derivational affixes to
stems. Affixaton consisits of prefixation and suffixation. Prefixation
is the formation of new words by adding prefixes to stems; suffixation
is the formation of new words by adding suffixes to stems.
Compounding: Compounding or composition is the formation of new
words by joining two or more stems. Words formed in this way tire called
compounds.
Conversion:Conversion is the formation of new words by converting
words of one class to another class. Functional shift = conversion Zero-derivation .Adjective to noun : (1) full conversion (2) partial
conversion
Acronymy Acronymy is the process of forming new words by joining
the initial letters of neames of social and political organizations or
special noun phrases and
technical terms Acronymy 包含两类:1) initialisms (不发音)e.g. BBC,
VOA, TB2) acronyms (形成新的发音)e.g. CORE, TEFL
Blending is the formation of new words by combining parts of two
words or a won! plus a part of another word. Words formed by blending
are called blends or pormanteau.
Clipping is a way of making new words which involves the shortening
a longer word by cutting a part off the original and using what remains
instead.
Back-formation is a process of forming new words considered to the
opposite process of suffixation by the removal of an affix from existing
word.
Words from proper names of place, people, trade, book, etc.
Concept,is beyond language, is the result of human cognition,
reflecting the objective world in the human mind
Sense : denotes the relationships inside the language.
Reference is the relationship between language and the world.
2024年2月19日发(作者：叶若华)
1. Word --- A word is a minimal free form of
a language that has a given sound and meaning
and syntactic funtion.
2. Morpheme --- A morpheme is the minimal significant element in
the composition of words.
3. Free morphemes or Content morphemes (Free root) --- They are
morphemes that may constitute words by themselves : cat, walk.
4. Bound Morphemes or Grammatical morphemes --- They are morphemes
that must appear with at least one other morpheme, either bound or free :
Catts, walk+ing.
5. Bound root --- A bound root is that part of the word that
carries the fundamental meaning just like a free root. Unlike a free
root, it is a bound form and has to combine with other morphemes to make
words. Take -dict- for example: it conveys the meaning of "say or speak"
as a Latin root, but not as a word. With the prefix pre-(=before) we
obtain the verb predict meaning "tell beforehand".
6. Affixes --- Affixes are forms that are attached to words or word
elements to modify meaning or funtion.
7. Inflectional morphemes or Inflectional affixes--- Affixes
attaches to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships are
inflectional ,thus known as inflectional morphemes.
There is the regular plural suffix -s(-es) which is added to nouns
such as machines, desks.
8. Derivational morphemes or Derivational affixes--- Derivational
affixes are affixes added to other morphemes to create new words.
9. Prefixes --- Prefixes are affixes that come before the word,
such as, pre+war.
10. Suffixes --- suffixes are affixes that come after the word, for
instance, blood+y. Derivational morphemes/ derivational affixes --- A
process of forming new words by the addition of a word element. Such as
prefix, suffix, combing form to an already existing word.
Prefixation ---- is the formation of new words by adding prefix or
combing form to the base. (It modify the lexical meaning of the base)
Suffixation--- is the formation of a new word by adding a suffix or
combing form to the base and usually changing the word-class of the base.
Such as boy. Boyish (noun- adjective)
11. Root --- A root is the basic form of a word which cannot be
further analysed without total loss of identity.
下面我画了个图,把上面的定义形象的表达出来:
12. Opaque Words--Words that are formed by one content morpheme
only and cannot be analysed into parts are called opaque words, such as
axe, glove.
13. Transparent Words--Words that consist of more than one
morphemes and can be segmented into parts are called transparent words:
workable(work+able), door-man(door+man).
14. Morphs--Morphemes are abstract units, which are realized in
speech by discrete units known
as morphs. They are actual spoken, minimal carriers of meaning.
15. Allomorps--Some morphemes are realized by more than one morph
according to their position in a word. Such alternative morphs are known
as allomorphs. For instance, the morpheme of plurality {-s} has a number
of allomorphs in different sound context, e.g. in cats /s/, in bags /z/,
in match /iz/.
16. Derivation or Affixation--Affixation is generally defined as
the formation of words by adding word-forming or derivational affixes to
stems. This process is also known as derivation.
17. Prefixatio n--Prefixation is the formation of new words by
adding prefixes to stems.
18. Suffixation--Suffixation is the formation of new words by
adding suffixes to stems.
19. Compounding(Compositon)--Compounding is a process of word-formation by which two independent words are put together to make one
word. E.g. hen-packed; short-sighted.
20. Conversion--Conversion is the formation of new words by
converting words of one class to another class. This process of creating
new words without adding any affixes is also called zero-derivation. E.g.
dry (a.)-->to dry.
21. Back-formation-- is a process of word-formation by which a word
is created by the deletion of
a supposed affix. E.g. editor entered the language before edit.
22. Abbreviation ( shortening )-- is a process of word-formation by
which the syllables of words are abbreviated or shortened.
23. Abbreviation includes four types : I. Clipped words II.
Initialisms III. Acronyms IV. Blends.
I. Clipped words--are those created by clipping part of a word,
leaving only a piece of the old word. E.g. telephone-->phone,
professional-->pro.
II. Initialisms--are words formed from the initial letters of words
and pronounced as letters. E.g. IMF/ai em ef/=International Monetary
Fund.
III. Acronyms--are words formed from the initial letters of word
and pronounced as words. E.g. NATO/'neito/=North Atlantic Treaty
Organization.
IV. Blends--are words that are combined by parts of other words.
E.g. smoke+fog=smog.
24. Polysemy--The same word may have two or more different meanings.
This is known as "polysemy". The word "flight", for example, may mean
"passing through the air", "power of flying", "air of journey", etc.
Two approaches to polysemy: Diachronic and Synchronic
Diachronically, we study the growth or change in the semantic
structure of a word , or how the semantic structure of a word has
developed from primary meaning to the present polysemic state .
Synchronically, we are interested in the comparative value of
individual meanings and the interrelation between the central meaning
and the secondary meanings.
Two processes leading to polysemy: Radiation and concatenation
Radiation : Semantically, radiation is the process in which the
primary or central meaning stands at the center while secondary meanings
radiate from it in every direction like rays. Concatenation : is a
semantic process in which the meaning of a word moves gradually away
from its first sense by successive shifts, like the links of a chain,
untill there is no connection between the sense that is finally
developed and the primary meaning.
25. Homonyms--a re generally defined as words different in meaning
but either identical both in sound and spelling or identical『a.同一的,完全相同的』only in sound or spelling.
26. Perfect Homonyms--are words identical both in sound and
spelling,but different in meaning。
E.g. bear n. a large heavy animal;
bear v. to put up with
27. Homographs--are words identical only in spelling but different
in sound and meaning. E.g. sow /s3u/ v. to scatter seeds
sow /sau/ n. female adult pig
28. Homophones--are words identical only insound but different in
spelling and meaning. E.g. dear /di3/ n. a loved person
deer /di3/ n. a kind of animal
29. Synonyms--can be defined as words different in sound and
spelling but most nearly alike or exactly the same in meaning. E.g.
maid / girl They are the same meaning of "a young female".
30. Absolute(Complete, Perfect)Synonyms--are words which are
identical in meaning in all its aspects, i.e. both in grammatical
meaning and lexical meaning, including conceptual and associative
meanings. For instance, composition / compounding They have the perfect
same meaning in Lexicology.
31. Relative (near,partial) synonyms--are similar or nearly the
same in denotation ,but embrace different shades of meaning or different
degrees of a given quality.
Take stagger/reel/totter for example. Stagger implies unsteady
movement characterized by a loss of balance and failure to maintain a
fixed course. E.g. stagger under a heavy load; Reel suggests a swaying
or lurching so as to appear on the verge of falling. E.g. The drunken
man reeled down the hall; Totter indicates the uncertain, faltering
steps of a feeble old person or of an infant learning to walk.
32. Sources of Synonyms
I. Borrowing : Native (ask)--French (question)--Latin (interrogate)
II. Dialects and regional English: railway (BrE)--railroad (AmE)
III. Figurative『a. 比喻的,象征的』and euphemistic 『a.委婉的』use
of words: occupation--walk of life (fig.)
lie--distort the fact (euph.)
IV. Coincidence with idiomatic expressions:
win--gain the upper hand
hesitate--be in two minds
33. Discrimination of Synonyms
I. Difference in denotation : differ in the range and intensity of
meaning.
E.g. extend--increase--expand (range)
want--wish--desire (intensity)
II. Difference in connotation『n.涵义,含蓄』: differ in the
stylistic and emotive colouring. E.g. ask (neutral); beg (colloquial);
request (formal)
III. Difference in application: in usage. E.g.
empty box ; vacant seat
34. Antonymy--is concerned with semantic opposition.
35. Antonyms--are words which are opposite in meaning.
36. Types of Antonyms
I. Contradictory terms: mutually opposed; true oppositeness of
meaning; no possibility between them; E.g. alive--dead; present--absent
II. Contrary terms: gradable
E.g. rich--(well-to-do)--poor;
hot--(warm,cool)--cold
III. Relative terms: relational oppositeness
E.g. parent--child; husband--wife; sell--buy
IV. Semantic incompatibles: contrastingness.
E.g. north,south,east,west;
spring,summer,a utumn,winter.
37. Hyponymy--deals with the relationship of semantic inclusion.
That is , the meaning of a more specific word is included in that of
another more general word. These specific words are known as hyponyms.
For instance, tulip and rose are hyponyms of flower. The general word
flower is the superordinate term and the specific ones tulip and rose
are the subordinate terms.
38. Extension of meaning (generalization)--is a term referring to
the widening of meaning. It is a process by which a word which
originally had a specialized meaning has now become generalized.
"Picture", for example, originally denoted mere "painting", but now has
come to include "drawings" and even "photographs".
39. Narrowing of meaning(specialization)--is a term referring to
the shrinking of meaning. It is a process by which a word of wide
meaning acquires a narrower or specialized sense.
E.g. When garage was first borrowed from French, it meant simply
"any safe place" but now "a
place for storing cars".
40. Elevation or amelioration『n.改善,改良』--refers to the process
by which words rise from humble beginnings to positions of importance.
E.g. Marshal and constable meant a "keeper of horses", but now have
risen to a "high-ranking army officer" and "policeman" respectively.
41. Degradation or pejoration of meaning--It is a process whereby
words of good origin fall into ill reputation or non-affective words
come to be used in derogatory sense.
E.g. A wench was a "country girl" and now means "prostitute".
42. Metaphor『n.隐喻』--is a figure of speech containing an implied
comparison, in which a word or phase ordinarily and primarily used of
one thing is applied to another.
E.g. the teeth of a comb; blood bank; He has a heart of stone; The
curtain of night has fallen.
43. Metonymy『n.借代』--is the device in which we name something by
one of its attributes, as in crown for king, the White House for the
President. The kettle is boiling. (kettle for water in the kettle)
44. Synecdoche『n.提喻法』--means using a part for a whole, an
individual for a class, a material for a thing or the reverse of any of
these.
For example, bread for food, the army for a soldier.
He is a poor creature. --creature for man
45. Analogy『n.类似,相似』--is a process whereby words are created
in imitation of other words. For example, telethon an talkathon are
created on the model of marathon.
46. Idiom--Strictly speaking, idioms are expressions that are not
readily understandable from their literal meanings of individual
elements. For example, fly off the handle (become excessively angry) and
put up with (tolerate). In a broad sense, idioms may include
colloquialisms, catchphrases, slang expressions ,proverbs,etc.
47. Characteristics of Idioms:
I. Long use
II. Unitary meaning; semantic unity.
III. Syntactic frozenness; structural stability.
48. Figurative idioms--are idioms that include metaphor. Strictly
speaking, they are true idioms.
E.g. a dog in the manger.
49. Sources of Figurative idioms:
I. Coloquialisms: big wheel (an influential or important person)
II. Literary expressions: to kill the fatted calf
III. Slang: in the soup(in serious trouble)
IV. Foreign idioms: sour grapes.
50. Motivation--accounts for the connection between the linguistic
symbol and its meaning.
51. Onomatopoeic Motivation--These words were created by imitating
the natural sounds or noises. For example, bang, ping-pang, crow by
cocks, etc.
52. Morphological Motivation--Compounds and derived words are
multi-morphemic words and the meaning of many are the sum total of the
morphemes combined. For instance, airmail means to "mail by air",
miniskirt is "a small skirt".
53. Semantic Motivation--refers to the mental associations
suggested by the conceptual meaning of a word.
E.g. When we say the mouth of a river, we associate the opening
part of the river with the mouth of a human being or an animal.
54. Etymological Motivation--The history of the word explains the
meaning of the word. [
1、types of morphemes: Free morphemes; bound morphemes;
inflectional morphemes.
2、types of bound morphemes:Prefix; Suffix.
3、types of idioms: Idioms Nominal in nature; Idioms Adjectival in
nature; Idioms Verbal in nature; Idioms Adverbal in nature; sentence
idioms.
4、types of word meaning: Grammatical meaning and lexical meaning;
conceptual meaning and associative meaning (connotative
meaningstylistic ~affective
~collocative ~)
5、idioms stylistic features: colloquialisms; slang; literary
expressions.
6、idioms rhetorical features:
phonetic manipulation (alliterationrhyme); lexical manipulation
(reiterationrepetitionjuxtaposition);figures of speech
(similemetaphormetonymysynecdovheeuphemismpersonification)
7、types of word formation: affixation; compounding; conversion;
blending; clipping; acronym; back-formation; word from proper names.
8、changes in wording: extension; narrowing; elevation; degradation;
transfer.
9、types of motivation: morphological motivated; semantic ~;
etymological ~; onomatopoeic ~
10、语系划分的标准Estern set : Balto-Slavic(Prussian, Lithuanian ,
Polish ,Czech, Bulgarian ,Slovenian and Russian.), Indo-Iranian(Persian,
Hindi), Armenian and Albanian;Western set : Celtic(Scottish, Irish,
Welsh, Breton), Italic(Portuguese, Spanish, French, Italian ,
Roumanian) , Hellenic(Greek),
Germanic(Norwegian ,Icelandic, Danish and Swedish, English, German).
五、41-45名词解释*2;
Lexicology is a branch of linguistics, inquiring into the origins
and meanings of words.
Morphology : the study of morpheme and their different forms.
Semantics:the study of word meaning.
Etymology: the study of the origin of words, and of their history
and changes in their meaning.
Stylistics : the study of the variation in language which is
dependent on the situation in which the language is used and also on the
effect the writer or speaker wishes to create on the reader or hearer
Lexicography : the compiling of dictionaries.
Synchronic study : the study of a word or words at one particular
point in time.
Diachronic study: a n approach to lexicology which studies how a
word (or words) changes over a period of time.
word: a word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given
sound and meaning and syntactic function.
vocabulary:Vocabulary refers to the total number of the words in a
language, but it can stand for all the words used in a particular
historical lary also refers to all the words of a given
dialect, given book, a given discipline and the words possessed by an
individual person.
Terminology术语consists of technical terms used in particular
disciplines and academic areas as in medicine:
Jargon行话refers to the specialized vocabularies by which members
of particular arts, sciences, trades and professions communicate among
themselves such as in business.
slang俚语belongs to the sub-standard language, a category that
seems to stand between the standard general words including informal
ones available to everyone and in-group words
Argot黑话generally refers to the jargon of criminals. Its use is
confined to the
sub-cultural groups, and outsiders can hardly understand it,
Archaism s古词语are words or forms that were once in common use
but are now restricted only to specialized or limited use.
Neologisms新词语are newly-created words or expressions, or words
that have taken on new meanings.
denizen s同化词are words borrowed early in the past and now are
well assimilated into the English language.
Alien非同化词are borrowed words which have retained their original
pronunciation and spelling.
Translation-loans. 借译词Translation-loans are words and
expressions formed from the existing material in the English language
but modelled on the patterns taken from another language.
Semantic-loan s借义词Words of this category are not borrowed with
reference to the form. But their meanings are borrowed.
Content word: the basic word stock is the foundation of the
vocabulary ,which accumulated over centuries and forms the common core
of the language. It is the most important part of vocabulary.
Creation : the formation of new words by using the existing
materials, namely roots, affix es and other elements. Semantic change
means an old form which takes on a new meaning to meet the new need.
Morpheme: the smallest meaningful unit in a language
Allomorph: any of the different forms of a morpheme
Free morpheme: a linguistic form which can be used on its own as a
word
Bound morpheme: a form (morpheme) which can not he used alone hut
must be used with another morpheme. Bound morphemes include hound roots
and affixes
Affixes: forms that are attached to words or word elements to
modify meaning or function
Prefixation(suffixation): is the formation of new words by adding
prefixes(suffixes) to stem
Inflectional affixes: affixes attached to the end of words to
indicate grammatical relationships
Derivational affixes: affixes added to other morphemes to create
new words
Root: a morpheme which is the basic part of a word that can not be
further analyzed without total loss of identity
Stem: a form to which affixes of any kind can be added
Bound root: a root that can not stand alone as a word
Monomorphemic words: words that have nothing more than a free
morpheme
Affixation: Derivation (also known as affixation) is the process of
formation of words by adding word-forming or derivational affixes to
stems. Affixaton consisits of prefixation and suffixation. Prefixation
is the formation of new words by adding prefixes to stems; suffixation
is the formation of new words by adding suffixes to stems.
Compounding: Compounding or composition is the formation of new
words by joining two or more stems. Words formed in this way tire called
compounds.
Conversion:Conversion is the formation of new words by converting
words of one class to another class. Functional shift = conversion Zero-derivation .Adjective to noun : (1) full conversion (2) partial
conversion
Acronymy Acronymy is the process of forming new words by joining
the initial letters of neames of social and political organizations or
special noun phrases and
technical terms Acronymy 包含两类:1) initialisms (不发音)e.g. BBC,
VOA, TB2) acronyms (形成新的发音)e.g. CORE, TEFL
Blending is the formation of new words by combining parts of two
words or a won! plus a part of another word. Words formed by blending
are called blends or pormanteau.
Clipping is a way of making new words which involves the shortening
a longer word by cutting a part off the original and using what remains
instead.
Back-formation is a process of forming new words considered to the
opposite process of suffixation by the removal of an affix from existing
word.
Words from proper names of place, people, trade, book, etc.
Concept,is beyond language, is the result of human cognition,
reflecting the objective world in the human mind
Sense : denotes the relationships inside the language.
Reference is the relationship between language and the world.