2024年3月31日发(作者：乐正悦欣)
英语词汇学笔记之“名词解释篇”
--- A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and
meaning and syntactic funtion.
2. Morpheme --- A morpheme is the minimal significant element in the composition
of words.
3. Free morphemes or Content morphemes (Free root) --- They are morphemes
that may constitute words by themselves : cat, walk.
4. Bound Morphemes or Grammatical morphemes --- They are morphemes that
must appear with at least one other morpheme, either bound or free : Catts, walk+ing.
5. Bound root --- A bound root is that part of the word that carries the fundamental
meaning just like a free root. Unlike a free root, it is a bound form and has to combine
with other morphemes to make words. Take -dict- for example: it conveys the
meaning of "say or speak" as a Latin root, but not as a word. With the prefix
pre-(=before) we obtain the verb predict meaning "tell beforehand".
6. Affixes --- Affixes are forms that are attached to words or word elements to modify
meaning or funtion.
7. Inflectional morphemes or Inflectional affixes --- Affixes attaches to the end of
words to indicate grammatical relationships are inflectional ,thus known as
inflectional morphemes.
There is the regular plural suffix -s(-es) which is added to nouns such as machines,
desks.
8. Derivational morphemes or Derivational affixes --- Derivational affixes are
affixes added to other morphemes to create new words.
9. Prefixes --- Prefixes are affixes that come before the word, such as, pre+war.
10. Suffixes --- suffixes are affixes that come after the word, for instance, blood+y.
Derivational morphemes/ derivational affixes --- A process of forming new words
by the addition of a word element. Such as prefix, suffix, combing form to an already
existing word.
Prefixation ---- is the formation of new words by adding prefix or combing form to
the base. (It modify the lexical meaning of the base)
Suffixation--- is the formation of a new word by adding a suffix or combing form to
the base and usually changing the word-class of the base. Such as boy. Boyish (noun-
adjective)
11. Root --- A root is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analysed
without total loss of identity.
12. Opaque Words--Words that are formed by one content morpheme only and
cannot be analysed into parts are called opaque words, such as axe, glove.
13. Transparent Words--Words that consist of more than one morphemes and can
be segmented into parts are called transparent words: workable(work+able),
door-man(door+man).
14. Morphs--Morphemes are abstract units, which are realized in speech by discrete
units known as morphs. They are actual spoken, minimal carriers of meaning.
15. Allomorps--Some morphemes are realized by more than one morph according to
their position in a word. Such alternative morphs are known as allomorphs. For
instance, the morpheme of plurality {-s} has a number of allomorphs in different
sound context, e.g. in cats /s/, in bags /z/, in match /iz/.
16. Derivation or Affixation--Affixation is generally defined as the formation of
words by adding word-forming or derivational affixes to stems. This process is also
known as derivation.
17. Prefixation--Prefixation is the formation of new words by adding prefixes to
stems.
18. Suffixation--Suffixation is the formation of new words by adding suffixes to
stems.
19. Compounding（Compositon）--Compounding is a process of word-formation by
which two independent words are put together to make one word. E.g. hen-packed;
short-sighted.
20. Conversion--Conversion is the formation of new words by converting words of
one class to another class. This process of creating new words without adding any
affixes is also called zero-derivation. E.g. dry (a.)-->to dry.
21. Back-formation-- is a process of word-formation by which a word is created by
the deletion of a supposed affix. E.g. editor entered the language before edit.
22. Abbreviation ( shortening )-- is a process of word-formation by which the
syllables of words are abbreviated or shortened.
23. Abbreviation includes four types : I. Clipped words II. Initialisms III. Acronyms
IV. Blends.
I. Clipped words--are those created by clipping part of a word, leaving only a piece
of the old word. E.g. telephone-->phone, professional-->pro.
II. Initialisms--are words formed from the initial letters of words and pronounced as
letters. E.g. IMF/ai em ef/=International Monetary Fund.
III. Acronyms--are words formed from the initial letters of word and pronounced as
words. E.g. NATO/'neito/=North Atlantic Treaty Organization.
IV. Blends--are words that are combined by parts of other words. E.g.
smoke+fog=smog.
24. Polysemy--The same word may have two or more different meanings. This is
known as "polysemy". The word "flight", for example, may mean "passing through
the air", "power of flying", "air of journey", etc.
*Two approaches to polysemy: Diachronic and Synchronic
Diachronically, we study the growth or change in the semantic structure of a word ,
or how the semantic structure of a word has developed from primary meaning to the
present polysemic state .
Synchronically, we are interested in the comparative value of individual meanings
and the interrelation between the central meaning and the secondary meanings.
*Two processes leading to polysemy: Radiation and concatenation
Radiation : Semantically, radiation is the process in which the primary or central
meaning stands at the center while secondary meanings radiate from it in every
direction like rays.
Concatenation : is a semantic process in which the meaning of a word moves
gradually away from its first sense by successive shifts, like the links of a chain, untill
there is no connection between the sense that is finally developed and the primary
meaning.
25. Homonyms--are generally defined as words different in meaning but either
identical both in sound and spelling or identical『a.同一的，完全相同的』 only in
sound or spelling.
26. Perfect Homonyms--are words identical both in sound and spelling,but different
in meaning。
E.g. bear n. a large heavy animal;
bear v. to put up with
27. Homographs--are words identical only in spelling but different in sound and
meaning. E.g.
sow /s3u/ v. to scatter seeds
sow /sau/ n. female adult pig
28. Homophones--are words identical only insound but different in spelling and
meaning. E.g.
dear /di3/ n. a loved person
deer /di3/ n. a kind of animal
29. Synonyms--can be defined as words different in sound and spelling but most
nearly alike or exactly the same in meaning. E.g.
maid / girl They are the same meaning of "a young female".
30. Absolute(Complete, Perfect)Synonyms--are words which are identical in
meaning in all its aspects, i.e. both in grammatical meaning and lexical meaning,
including conceptual and associative meanings. For instance, composition /
compounding They have the perfect same meaning in Lexicology.
31. Relative (near,partial) synonyms--are similar or nearly the same in
denotation ,but embrace different shades of meaning or different degrees of a given
quality.
Take stagger/reel/totter for example. Stagger implies unsteady movement
characterized by a loss of balance and failure to maintain a fixed course. E.g. stagger
under a heavy load; Reel suggests a swaying or lurching so as to appear on the verge
of falling. E.g. The drunken man reeled down the hall; Totter indicates the uncertain,
faltering steps of a feeble old person or of an infant learning to walk.
32. Sources of Synonyms
I. Borrowing : Native (ask)--French (question)--Latin (interrogate)
II. Dialects and regional English: railway (BrE)--railroad (AmE)
III. Figurative『a. 比喻的，象征的』 and euphemistic 『a.委婉的』use of words:
occupation--walk of life (fig.)
lie--distort the fact (euph.)
IV. Coincidence with idiomatic expressions:
win--gain the upper hand
hesitate--be in two minds
33. Discrimination of Synonyms
I. Difference in denotation : differ in the range and intensity of meaning.
E.g. extend--increase--expand (range)
want--wish--desire (intensity)
II. Difference in connotation『n.涵义，含蓄』: differ in the stylistic and emotive
colouring.
E.g. ask (neutral); beg (colloquial); request (formal)
III. Difference in application: in usage.
E.g. empty box ; vacant seat
34. Antonymy--is concerned with semantic opposition.
35. Antonyms--are words which are opposite in meaning.
36. Types of Antonyms
I. Contradictory terms: mutually opposed; true oppositeness of meaning; no
possibility between them; E.g. alive--dead; present--absent
II. Contrary terms: gradable
E.g. rich--(well-to-do)--poor;
hot--(warm,cool)--cold
III. Relative terms: relational oppositeness
E.g. parent--child; husband--wife; sell--buy
IV. Semantic incompatibles: contrastingness.
E.g. north,south,east,west;
spring,summer,autumn,winter.
37. Hyponymy--deals with the relationship of semantic inclusion. That is , the
meaning of a more specific word is included in that of another more general word.
These specific words are known as hyponyms. For instance, tulip and rose are
hyponyms of flower. The general word flower is the superordinate term and the
specific ones tulip and rose are the subordinate terms.
38. Extension of meaning (generalization)--is a term referring to the widening of
meaning. It is a process by which a word which originally had a specialized meaning
has now become generalized. "Picture", for example, originally denoted mere
"painting", but now has come to include "drawings" and even "photographs".
39. Narrowing of meaning(specialization)--is a term referring to the shrinking of
meaning. It is a process by which a word of wide meaning acquires a narrower or
specialized sense.
E.g. When garage was first borrowed from French, it meant simply "any safe place"
but now "a place for storing cars".
40. Elevation or amelioration『n.改善，改良』--refers to the process by which words
rise from humble beginnings to positions of importance.
E.g. Marshal and constable meant a "keeper of horses", but now have risen to a
"high-ranking army officer" and "policeman" respectively.
41. Degradation or pejoration of meaning--It is a process whereby words of good
origin fall into ill reputation or non-affective words come to be used in derogatory
sense.
E.g. A wench was a "country girl" and now means "prostitute".
42. Metaphor『n.隐喻』--is a figure of speech containing an implied comparison, in
which a word or phase ordinarily and primarily used of one thing is applied to another.
E.g. the teeth of a comb; blood bank; He has a heart of stone; The curtain of night has
fallen.
43. Metonymy『n.借代』--is the device in which we name something by one of its
attributes, as in crown for king, the White House for the President. The kettle is
boiling. (kettle for water in the kettle)
44. Synecdoche『n.提喻法』--means using a part for a whole, an individual for a class,
a material for a thing or the reverse of any of these.
For example, bread for food, the army for a soldier.
He is a poor creature. --creature for man
45. Analogy『n.类似，相似』--is a process whereby words are created in imitation of
other words.
For example, telethon an talkathon are created on the model of marathon.
46. Idiom--Strictly speaking, idioms are expressions that are not readily
understandable from their literal meanings of individual elements. For example, fly
off the handle (become excessively angry) and put up with (tolerate). In a broad sense,
idioms may include colloquialisms, catchphrases, slang expressions ,proverbs,etc.
47. Characteristics of Idioms:
I. Long use
II. Unitary meaning; semantic unity.
III. Syntactic frozenness; structural stability.
48. Figurative idioms--are idioms that include metaphor. Strictly speaking, they are
true idioms. E.g. a dog in the manger.
49. Sources of Figurative idioms:
I. Coloquialisms: big wheel (an influential or important person)
II. Literary expressions: to kill the fatted calf
III. Slang: in the soup(in serious trouble)
IV. Foreign idioms: sour grapes.
50. Motivation--accounts for the connection between the linguistic symbol and its
meaning.
51. Onomatopoeic Motivation--These words were created by imitating the natural
sounds or noises. For example, bang, ping-pang, crow by cocks, etc.
52. Morphological Motivation--Compounds and derived words are multi-morphemic
words and the meaning of many are the sum total of the morphemes combined. For
instance, airmail means to "mail by air", miniskirt is "a small skirt".
53. Semantic Motivation--refers to the mental associations suggested by the
conceptual meaning of a word.
E.g. When we say the mouth of a river, we associate the opening part of the river with
the mouth of a human being or an animal.
54. Etymological Motivation--The history of the word explains the meaning of the
word
2024年3月31日发(作者：乐正悦欣)
英语词汇学笔记之“名词解释篇”
--- A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and
meaning and syntactic funtion.
2. Morpheme --- A morpheme is the minimal significant element in the composition
of words.
3. Free morphemes or Content morphemes (Free root) --- They are morphemes
that may constitute words by themselves : cat, walk.
4. Bound Morphemes or Grammatical morphemes --- They are morphemes that
must appear with at least one other morpheme, either bound or free : Catts, walk+ing.
5. Bound root --- A bound root is that part of the word that carries the fundamental
meaning just like a free root. Unlike a free root, it is a bound form and has to combine
with other morphemes to make words. Take -dict- for example: it conveys the
meaning of "say or speak" as a Latin root, but not as a word. With the prefix
pre-(=before) we obtain the verb predict meaning "tell beforehand".
6. Affixes --- Affixes are forms that are attached to words or word elements to modify
meaning or funtion.
7. Inflectional morphemes or Inflectional affixes --- Affixes attaches to the end of
words to indicate grammatical relationships are inflectional ,thus known as
inflectional morphemes.
There is the regular plural suffix -s(-es) which is added to nouns such as machines,
desks.
8. Derivational morphemes or Derivational affixes --- Derivational affixes are
affixes added to other morphemes to create new words.
9. Prefixes --- Prefixes are affixes that come before the word, such as, pre+war.
10. Suffixes --- suffixes are affixes that come after the word, for instance, blood+y.
Derivational morphemes/ derivational affixes --- A process of forming new words
by the addition of a word element. Such as prefix, suffix, combing form to an already
existing word.
Prefixation ---- is the formation of new words by adding prefix or combing form to
the base. (It modify the lexical meaning of the base)
Suffixation--- is the formation of a new word by adding a suffix or combing form to
the base and usually changing the word-class of the base. Such as boy. Boyish (noun-
adjective)
11. Root --- A root is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analysed
without total loss of identity.
12. Opaque Words--Words that are formed by one content morpheme only and
cannot be analysed into parts are called opaque words, such as axe, glove.
13. Transparent Words--Words that consist of more than one morphemes and can
be segmented into parts are called transparent words: workable(work+able),
door-man(door+man).
14. Morphs--Morphemes are abstract units, which are realized in speech by discrete
units known as morphs. They are actual spoken, minimal carriers of meaning.
15. Allomorps--Some morphemes are realized by more than one morph according to
their position in a word. Such alternative morphs are known as allomorphs. For
instance, the morpheme of plurality {-s} has a number of allomorphs in different
sound context, e.g. in cats /s/, in bags /z/, in match /iz/.
16. Derivation or Affixation--Affixation is generally defined as the formation of
words by adding word-forming or derivational affixes to stems. This process is also
known as derivation.
17. Prefixation--Prefixation is the formation of new words by adding prefixes to
stems.
18. Suffixation--Suffixation is the formation of new words by adding suffixes to
stems.
19. Compounding（Compositon）--Compounding is a process of word-formation by
which two independent words are put together to make one word. E.g. hen-packed;
short-sighted.
20. Conversion--Conversion is the formation of new words by converting words of
one class to another class. This process of creating new words without adding any
affixes is also called zero-derivation. E.g. dry (a.)-->to dry.
21. Back-formation-- is a process of word-formation by which a word is created by
the deletion of a supposed affix. E.g. editor entered the language before edit.
22. Abbreviation ( shortening )-- is a process of word-formation by which the
syllables of words are abbreviated or shortened.
23. Abbreviation includes four types : I. Clipped words II. Initialisms III. Acronyms
IV. Blends.
I. Clipped words--are those created by clipping part of a word, leaving only a piece
of the old word. E.g. telephone-->phone, professional-->pro.
II. Initialisms--are words formed from the initial letters of words and pronounced as
letters. E.g. IMF/ai em ef/=International Monetary Fund.
III. Acronyms--are words formed from the initial letters of word and pronounced as
words. E.g. NATO/'neito/=North Atlantic Treaty Organization.
IV. Blends--are words that are combined by parts of other words. E.g.
smoke+fog=smog.
24. Polysemy--The same word may have two or more different meanings. This is
known as "polysemy". The word "flight", for example, may mean "passing through
the air", "power of flying", "air of journey", etc.
*Two approaches to polysemy: Diachronic and Synchronic
Diachronically, we study the growth or change in the semantic structure of a word ,
or how the semantic structure of a word has developed from primary meaning to the
present polysemic state .
Synchronically, we are interested in the comparative value of individual meanings
and the interrelation between the central meaning and the secondary meanings.
*Two processes leading to polysemy: Radiation and concatenation
Radiation : Semantically, radiation is the process in which the primary or central
meaning stands at the center while secondary meanings radiate from it in every
direction like rays.
Concatenation : is a semantic process in which the meaning of a word moves
gradually away from its first sense by successive shifts, like the links of a chain, untill
there is no connection between the sense that is finally developed and the primary
meaning.
25. Homonyms--are generally defined as words different in meaning but either
identical both in sound and spelling or identical『a.同一的，完全相同的』 only in
sound or spelling.
26. Perfect Homonyms--are words identical both in sound and spelling,but different
in meaning。
E.g. bear n. a large heavy animal;
bear v. to put up with
27. Homographs--are words identical only in spelling but different in sound and
meaning. E.g.
sow /s3u/ v. to scatter seeds
sow /sau/ n. female adult pig
28. Homophones--are words identical only insound but different in spelling and
meaning. E.g.
dear /di3/ n. a loved person
deer /di3/ n. a kind of animal
29. Synonyms--can be defined as words different in sound and spelling but most
nearly alike or exactly the same in meaning. E.g.
maid / girl They are the same meaning of "a young female".
30. Absolute(Complete, Perfect)Synonyms--are words which are identical in
meaning in all its aspects, i.e. both in grammatical meaning and lexical meaning,
including conceptual and associative meanings. For instance, composition /
compounding They have the perfect same meaning in Lexicology.
31. Relative (near,partial) synonyms--are similar or nearly the same in
denotation ,but embrace different shades of meaning or different degrees of a given
quality.
Take stagger/reel/totter for example. Stagger implies unsteady movement
characterized by a loss of balance and failure to maintain a fixed course. E.g. stagger
under a heavy load; Reel suggests a swaying or lurching so as to appear on the verge
of falling. E.g. The drunken man reeled down the hall; Totter indicates the uncertain,
faltering steps of a feeble old person or of an infant learning to walk.
32. Sources of Synonyms
I. Borrowing : Native (ask)--French (question)--Latin (interrogate)
II. Dialects and regional English: railway (BrE)--railroad (AmE)
III. Figurative『a. 比喻的，象征的』 and euphemistic 『a.委婉的』use of words:
occupation--walk of life (fig.)
lie--distort the fact (euph.)
IV. Coincidence with idiomatic expressions:
win--gain the upper hand
hesitate--be in two minds
33. Discrimination of Synonyms
I. Difference in denotation : differ in the range and intensity of meaning.
E.g. extend--increase--expand (range)
want--wish--desire (intensity)
II. Difference in connotation『n.涵义，含蓄』: differ in the stylistic and emotive
colouring.
E.g. ask (neutral); beg (colloquial); request (formal)
III. Difference in application: in usage.
E.g. empty box ; vacant seat
34. Antonymy--is concerned with semantic opposition.
35. Antonyms--are words which are opposite in meaning.
36. Types of Antonyms
I. Contradictory terms: mutually opposed; true oppositeness of meaning; no
possibility between them; E.g. alive--dead; present--absent
II. Contrary terms: gradable
E.g. rich--(well-to-do)--poor;
hot--(warm,cool)--cold
III. Relative terms: relational oppositeness
E.g. parent--child; husband--wife; sell--buy
IV. Semantic incompatibles: contrastingness.
E.g. north,south,east,west;
spring,summer,autumn,winter.
37. Hyponymy--deals with the relationship of semantic inclusion. That is , the
meaning of a more specific word is included in that of another more general word.
These specific words are known as hyponyms. For instance, tulip and rose are
hyponyms of flower. The general word flower is the superordinate term and the
specific ones tulip and rose are the subordinate terms.
38. Extension of meaning (generalization)--is a term referring to the widening of
meaning. It is a process by which a word which originally had a specialized meaning
has now become generalized. "Picture", for example, originally denoted mere
"painting", but now has come to include "drawings" and even "photographs".
39. Narrowing of meaning(specialization)--is a term referring to the shrinking of
meaning. It is a process by which a word of wide meaning acquires a narrower or
specialized sense.
E.g. When garage was first borrowed from French, it meant simply "any safe place"
but now "a place for storing cars".
40. Elevation or amelioration『n.改善，改良』--refers to the process by which words
rise from humble beginnings to positions of importance.
E.g. Marshal and constable meant a "keeper of horses", but now have risen to a
"high-ranking army officer" and "policeman" respectively.
41. Degradation or pejoration of meaning--It is a process whereby words of good
origin fall into ill reputation or non-affective words come to be used in derogatory
sense.
E.g. A wench was a "country girl" and now means "prostitute".
42. Metaphor『n.隐喻』--is a figure of speech containing an implied comparison, in
which a word or phase ordinarily and primarily used of one thing is applied to another.
E.g. the teeth of a comb; blood bank; He has a heart of stone; The curtain of night has
fallen.
43. Metonymy『n.借代』--is the device in which we name something by one of its
attributes, as in crown for king, the White House for the President. The kettle is
boiling. (kettle for water in the kettle)
44. Synecdoche『n.提喻法』--means using a part for a whole, an individual for a class,
a material for a thing or the reverse of any of these.
For example, bread for food, the army for a soldier.
He is a poor creature. --creature for man
45. Analogy『n.类似，相似』--is a process whereby words are created in imitation of
other words.
For example, telethon an talkathon are created on the model of marathon.
46. Idiom--Strictly speaking, idioms are expressions that are not readily
understandable from their literal meanings of individual elements. For example, fly
off the handle (become excessively angry) and put up with (tolerate). In a broad sense,
idioms may include colloquialisms, catchphrases, slang expressions ,proverbs,etc.
47. Characteristics of Idioms:
I. Long use
II. Unitary meaning; semantic unity.
III. Syntactic frozenness; structural stability.
48. Figurative idioms--are idioms that include metaphor. Strictly speaking, they are
true idioms. E.g. a dog in the manger.
49. Sources of Figurative idioms:
I. Coloquialisms: big wheel (an influential or important person)
II. Literary expressions: to kill the fatted calf
III. Slang: in the soup(in serious trouble)
IV. Foreign idioms: sour grapes.
50. Motivation--accounts for the connection between the linguistic symbol and its
meaning.
51. Onomatopoeic Motivation--These words were created by imitating the natural
sounds or noises. For example, bang, ping-pang, crow by cocks, etc.
52. Morphological Motivation--Compounds and derived words are multi-morphemic
words and the meaning of many are the sum total of the morphemes combined. For
instance, airmail means to "mail by air", miniskirt is "a small skirt".
53. Semantic Motivation--refers to the mental associations suggested by the
conceptual meaning of a word.
E.g. When we say the mouth of a river, we associate the opening part of the river with
the mouth of a human being or an animal.
54. Etymological Motivation--The history of the word explains the meaning of the
word